By D.W. Roach
The Vikings remain some of history’s most iconic warriors, remembered for their raids, longships, and ferocious reputation in battle. Yet the reality of Viking combat was more complex than the popular image of horned-helmeted berserkers swinging axes. Their fighting styles, weapons, and tactics were deeply shaped by their resources, social structures, and the ever-changing conditions of warfare in the early medieval world.
Weapons of the Viking Warrior
Viking weaponry was influenced by both availability and wealth. Laws such as the Gulaþing Law in Norway required all free men to own weapons (Hurst, 2020).
- Swords – Considered prestige weapons, swords were expensive and often handed down as heirlooms. Many were imported from the Frankish regions (Ulfberht swords) and inscribed with maker’s marks (Williams, 2012).
- Axes – More common than swords due to lower cost. The famous Dane axe emerged later in the Viking Age, with a long shaft and broad blade, capable of breaking shield walls.
- Spears – The most widely used weapon. Spears varied from throwing spears (angons) to thrusting spears designed for close combat (Roesdahl, 1998).
- Shields – Round wooden shields with iron bosses were essential for both defense and offensive tactics such as the “shield wall.”
- Bows – The Vikings employed powerful longbows for ranged attacks, both in battle and during raids.
The sagas often praised weapon craftsmanship. In The Saga of the Volsungs, Sigurd’s sword Gram is described as:
“It was so sharp that Sigurd thrust it through an anvil and split it down to the base.” (Völsunga saga, ch. 15).
This legendary imagery reflects the cultural reverence for weapons as symbols of honor and fate.
Styles of Combat
Viking fighting style emphasized versatility. Combat could be one-on-one duels, small skirmishes, or massed shield-wall formations. Individual combat, often tied to notions of honor, could be ritualized, while massed battles emphasized cohesion and discipline.
The practice of the hólmganga (duel) is described in Egil’s Saga:
“They went to the island as was the custom, and set up the hazel poles. Each man took his shield, sword, and helm. Then they began to fight, and men stood by to watch.” (Egils saga, ch. 65).
This reflects the semi-formalized rules of honor combat in Viking society.
At the other extreme, massed battles were chaotic and brutal. The Anglo-Saxon poem The Battle of Maldon (991 CE), which describes Viking raiders fighting English defenders, captures this vividly:
“Then Byrhtnoth ordered each of his warriors, his good men, to let their horses go, and to advance on foot with their shields and fight the enemy with courage.” (The Battle of Maldon).
Comparison to Romans and Medieval Knights
- Romans: Roman legions fought with standardized equipment and rigid formation tactics, prioritizing discipline over individual glory. Vikings, by contrast, allowed greater individual freedom, though the shield wall shared similarities with Roman formations.
- Medieval Knights: Knights were heavily armored cavalry, whereas Vikings were predominantly infantry with limited armor (mail shirts were rare and costly). The Vikings’ mobility and raiding tactics contrasted sharply with the set-piece battles of knightly warfare (Sawyer, 2001).
Influence of Resources and Evolution
The Vikings’ weapons and tactics evolved with time. Early raids emphasized speed and shock attacks with minimal armor. As Viking groups became involved in continental wars, they adopted heavier axes, better armor, and cavalry tactics influenced by Frankish forces.
Skaldic poetry reflects this shift from quick raids to heavier clashes. The skald Tindr Hallkelsson described King Óláfr Tryggvason’s battle at Svöldr (1000 CE):
“Swords clashed, blood flowed, the sea was stained red. The shields broke beneath the storm of spears.” (Óláfsdrápa).
The imagery is stark, violent, and deeply connected to the chaos of hand-to-hand battle.
Conclusion
Viking combat was not simply about brute force—it was about adaptability, resourcefulness, and balancing individual honor with collective survival. Unlike the uniformity of Roman or knightly warfare, Viking warriors blended personal prowess with tactical cohesion, making them both feared raiders and respected mercenaries. Their weapons and tactics evolved alongside their society, leaving an enduring mark on European military history.
References
Hurst, J. (2020). The World of the Vikings. Thames & Hudson.
Price, N. (2020). Children of Ash and Elm: A History of the Vikings. Basic Books.
Roesdahl, E. (1998). The Vikings. Penguin.
Sawyer, P. (2001). The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings. Oxford University Press.
Williams, G. (2012). Viking Warfare. British Museum Press.
Egils saga Skalla-Grímssonar. (trans. Bernard Scudder, 2000). In The Sagas of Icelanders. Penguin Classics.
Völsunga saga. (trans. Jesse L. Byock, 1990). University of California Press.
The Battle of Maldon. (trans. Michael Swanton, 1991). Manchester University Press.
D.W. Roach "Marauder" 